THELEGALSYSTEM

　　TheImperialEra

　　ContemporarysocialcontrolisrootedintheConfucianpast.TheteachingsofConfuciushavehadanenduringeffectonChineselifeandhaveprovidedthebasisforthesocialorderthroughmuchofthecountry'shistory.Confuciansbelievedinthefundamentalgoodnessofmanandadvocatedrulebymoralpersuasioninaccordancewiththeconceptofli(propriety),asetofgenerallyacceptedsocialvaluesornormsofbehavior.Liwasenforcedbysocietyratherthanbycourts.Educationwasconsideredthekeyingredientformaintainingorder,andcodesoflawwereintendedonlytosupplementli,nottoreplaceit(seeTheHundredSchoolsofThought,ch.1;TraditionalSocietyandCulture,ch.3).

　　Confuciansheldthatcodifiedlawwasinadequatetoprovidemeaningfulguidancefortheentirepanoramaofhumanactivity,buttheywerenotagainstusinglawstocontrolthemostunrulyelementsinthesociety.Thefirstcriminalcodewaspromulgatedsometimebetween455and395B.C.Therewerealsocivilstatutes,mostlyconcernedwithlandtransactions.

　　Legalism,acompetingschoolofthoughtduringtheWarringStatesperiod(475-221B.C.),maintainedthatmanwasbynatureevilandhadtobecontrolledbystrictrulesoflawanduniformjustice.Legalistphilosophyhaditsgreatestimpactduringthefirstimperialdynasty,theQin(221-207B.C.;seeTheImperialEra,ch.1).

　　TheHandynasty(206B.C.-A.D.220)retainedthebasiclegalsystemestablishedundertheQinbutmodifiedsomeoftheharsheraspectsinlinewiththeConfucianphilosophyofsocialcontrolbasedonethicalandmoralpersuasion.Mostlegalprofessionalswerenotlawyersbutgeneraliststrainedinphilosophyandliterature.Thelocal,classicallytrained,Confuciangentryplayedacrucialroleasarbitersandhandledallbutthemostseriouslocaldisputes.

　　Thisbasiclegalphilosophyremainedineffectformostoftheimperialera.Thecriminalcodewasnotcomprehensiveandoftennotwrittendown,whichleftmagistratesgreatflexibilityduringtrials.Theaccusedhadnorightsandreliedonthemercyofthecourt;defendantsweretorturedtoobtainconfessionsandoftenservedlongjailtermswhileawaitingtrial.Acourtappearance,atminimum,resultedinlossofface,andthepeoplewerereluctantandafraidtousethecourts.Rulersdidlittletomakethecourtsmoreappealing,foriftheystressedrulebylaw,theyweakenedtheirownmoralinfluence.

　　InthefinalyearsoftheQingdynasty(1644-1911),reformadvocatesinthegovernmentimplementedcertainaspectsofthemodernizedJapaneselegalsystem,itselforiginallybasedonGermanjudicialprecedents(seeTheHundredDays'ReformandtheAftermath,ch.1).Theseeffortswereshort-livedandlargelyineffective.